People and Plants online workshop, by Inbal Livne.

 Part of the 'People and Plants: Reactivating Ethnobotanical Collections as Material Archives of Indigenous Ecological Knowledge' AHRC networking project, this workshop (July 14 2022) bridged the gap between the first two in-person sessions, in March at the Powell-Cotton Museum, and in November at National Museums Scotland. While the in-person meetings are focused on collections particular to each museum, the online session was an opportunity to talk across geographies and institutions, thinking about the connectedness of ecologies and people and plant relations in Australia, Canada and the African continent.

Short talks by each of the invited speakers were made available via the project’s YouTube channel prior to the event. Due to illness speaker Naima Hassan was unable to attend and so the workshop was based on the talks by Nancy Turner and James Tylor.

Nancy Turner, an ethnobotanist who has worked with First Nations elders and cultural specialists in northwest North America for over 50 years, reflected on ethnobotany’s application to contemporary environmental issues. Visual artist, researcher and writer James Tylor discussed the process of reviving, practicing and continuing Kaurna cultural plant knowledge and care of the environment in South Australia, as a living museum collection. 

The discussion began with James expanding on the issues of land management and fragile eco-systems, and the specific impacts of colonisation and European land management frameworks on Indigenous landscapes. Using kangaroo grass as an example, James discussed the nuanced and complex systems of land management by Kaurna people that had allowed the grass to flourish, in contrast to the impact of European agricultural practices (plants and animals) on Indigenous plant health today. A repeating theme of the workshop was this balance of co-existence between species, and the way in which colonial understandings of land use ignored, and continue to ignore, the importance of site-specific ecology. As James noted, today kangaroo grass can mostly be found growing between the roads and farmland, not on the farmland itself, and only at a fraction of its former height.

Nancy responded by noting the parallels between land practices in Australia and Canada, and the similar impacts of colonial land management. She noted the physical changes in the landscape that have come about today, because of the different – European – plants that were introduced by colonisers. Using the example of a species of clover, Nancy spoke about how, much like the kangaroo grass, clover could be found all around Victoria and was a common food source. These changes to the plant-scape over time, as the city changed and grew, are reflected in herbarium collections, forming a historical record. Therefore, she notes, we must continue to document and collect, to keep those records going for future generations.

As Ali Clark, session chair, noted, these institutional specimens become markers of change, and as those people who care for such specimens in museums, we need to better understand their role as a record of the holistic nature of ecosystems.

The conversation then moved on more specifically to land management, and James began with a fascinating and detailed explanation of the importance of Indigenous land management in Australia. Focusing on the area around Adelaide, he described how the land has been damaged by colonisation and the building of the city. Colonisers were wealthy and wanted a British feel to the city, determined to build European landscapes in environmental conditions that were inappropriate. James noted that South Australia has one of the highest rates of plant extinction in Australia, largely due to land mismanagement by colonisers. Burning, James noted, was a particular area in which European land management continued to be hugely detrimental to the landscape. Catastrophic bushfires come from the continued Euro-centric attitude of the Australian government to fire – a position in which fire is a bad thing. Where the fire departments do burn, it is done at the time of year to best remove fuel load, not when is best for the environment and plants. By contrast, Indigenous fire management is about doing it at the right time, in the right part of the cycle of the plants. The optimal time to burn for plants, is late summer/autumn, which goes against European cultural norms. It has taken recent catastrophic fires, which have led to the deaths of millions of animals, for the Australian government to see the advantage of low-temperature, controlled, Indigenous burning techniques.

James passionately talked about how fire has a beautiful cycle. When Aboriginal people arrived in Australia, they realised they could manage the land through burning in a way that was optimal for all ecosystems. It a system that Aboriginal people have been refining through observations of nature for tens of thousands of years.

In response, Nancy reflected on land management systems in Canada, and the impact of Euro-centric systems. She noted that colonisers carved up the land in line with their agricultural traditions and plants in European ways. In Western Canada, colonisers were blind to the nuanced land management systems that already existed. Indigenous communities weren’t growing annual, seeded crops, but were managing perennials that needed year on year cultivation in different ways. These developments are documented in herbarium specimens and ethnographic accounts.

The discussion turned to knowledge systems and the value we place – now and historically – on different forms of knowledge. In the case of Australia, James noted, the British Empire invaded at the height of its powers. At the same time, ‘science’ was carving up the various academic disciplines, breaking down and categorising the world in a very individualised way. For a culture (European) where an understanding of the world was broken down in this way, the complex way in which Aboriginal communities understood the interrelationships of plants, people and animals in ecosystems, was just too advanced for European thinking. And James notes that how we value Aboriginal knowledge continues to be influenced by historic European scientific thinking but ‘there are 3000 generations of observations of the land in Indigenous communities, but only 300 years of European scientific understanding’. Adding to this, Nancy noted that it is not just eco-systems, but biocultural systems of accumulated knowledge across the generations.

For the last part of the workshop, the floor was opened to questions. The first asked whether indigenous knowledge was, and could be, retained down the generations, or whether there was a risk of loss in the present day. Both James and Nancy felt positive about the future. James also reflected on the fact that living culture is something continuous and active, that would continue to grow and expand. By collecting plants or cultural objects from indigenous peoples, museums have removed these from use. James argued that museums run the risk of becoming stagnant and that it is important for museums to reflect this living culture to avoid presenting cultures as static

The next question was for James, asking what the role of his artistic practice is within the concept of the ‘living museum’. James responded by noting that Aboriginal people practice culture in the broadest sense, not as ‘art’, rather, taking a holistic view.

The final question looked to the future, and asked if the speakers thought, given the discussion on complex and fragile local-ecosystems, museum collecting practices could be adapted to better reflect that holistic view, to make them more relevant and useful outside of the museum, particularly to indigenous communities. Nancy responded by sharing an example of a digging implement, which she had to hand and could share on screen. She discussed the contextualisation of the crop it was associated with and the importance of tools, recordings, photographs and references to writing that pointed people to where they could see these cultural activities in action.

To finish the event, James set us – as museum professionals – a challenge. He noted that living cultures continue to evolve and that museums contain static collections that could become less and less relevant to the communities they represent. He challenged museums to work more with communities, to provide that context and keep that relevance going forward.

For more information on the People and Plants project please visit:

People and Plants: investigating natural history and ethnography collections in museums (nms.ac.uk)

The project is supported by the Museum Ethnographers Group and the Natural Sciences Collections Association.

Inbal Livne

Curator, Diversifying Collections

John Rylands Library, University of Manchester

Report: Truths and Reconciliations; indigenous collections in Canadian museums.

By  Victoria Adams, Assistant Curator for Oceania, Africa, and the Americas, National Museums Scotland

In 2019 I received a travel fellowship to the Association of Art Museum Curators & AAMC Foundation conference in New York, with subsequent follow-up funding also supported and coordinated by Art Fund. Using information and contacts gained at the conference, I scheduled visits to museums and art galleries in Ottawa and Toronto displaying indigenous collections, and arranged meetings with museum professionals and academics actively engaged in collaborative working with indigenous communities. As well as learning from colleagues’ experiences and seeing examples of best practice, I also hoped to raise the profile of National Museums Scotland’s indigenous Americas collections.

I met over twenty colleagues from the Royal Ontario Museum, Art Gallery Ontario and Bata Shoe Museum in Toronto, and the Canadian Museum of History and National Gallery of Canada in Ottawa; academics from OCAD University in Toronto and Carleton University in Ottawa, and the directors of OCAD University’s Onsite Gallery, and the Indigenous Art Centre, part of the government department of Corporate Secretariat Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada. Several colleagues were of indigenous ancestry, and everyone gave me valuable insights into working with and representing indigenous communities in museums and galleries. I heard many different perspectives and experiences, and received both encouragement and resources with which to further develop National Museum Scotland’s interpretation.

Almost everyone I met mentioned the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (2015), and its impact on museums and galleries. Thousands of testimonies were collected from people affected by Indian Residential Schools, a system that existed from the 1880s to 1996. More than 150,000 indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families, denied their traditional languages, dress, beliefs and cultural identity, with an enforced Christian education to “civilise” and “assimilate”, "to kill the Indian in the child". Abuse was rife, and mortality rates high. Results of this enquiry included financial compensation for survivors, and 94 ‘calls to action’ issued by the Government. Alongside the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007), museums and galleries’ subsequent policies now include increased education and commemoration of indigenous histories, as well as increased access to collections and archival material. In practice this also includes repatriation, community consultation, increased indigenous representation in the workforce, and increased cultural sensitivity and awareness. For example, between 1884 to 1951 Government legislation made indigenous ceremonies such as the potlatch, powwow and sun dance illegal, and regalia and other material seized during raids is now found in museums across the world; in recognition these are now increasingly being made available for community visits and repatriation requests.

Quillwork shoes in open storage at the Bata Museum, Toronto

My first visit was to Bata Shoe Museum in Toronto, and Manager of Exhibitions and Assistant Curator Nishi Bassi was very helpful in sharing her experiences of beginning the process of decolonising the museum, and reassessing previous more traditional approaches to interpretation and display. The on-site open storage of over 13,000 shoes was visually stunning, as founder Sonja Bata intended; particularly of interest to me were the Arctic collections and the current exhibition on ‘Art and Innovation’ of Arctic footwear. The Bata collection was acquired with a strong focus on decorative techniques, materials and design; National Museums Scotland’s Arctic and North American collections complement these with our historic, often more utilitarian examples, with known history and provenance.

The Royal Ontario Museum is comparable to National Museums Scotland in being an encyclopaedic museum, with a broad range of collections from the impressive dinosaur skeletons, through natural history and decorative arts, to world cultures. The Daphne Cockwell Gallery dedicated to First Peoples art & culture was reopened in 2018 in a better location and with free entry to encourage access. When I visited, they were recruiting for a Curator of Indigenous Art and Cultures, with an expectation that the successful candidate would reshape the displays of indigenous material, and steer the museum forward in terms of reframing indigenous material within the ‘Canadian’ history galleries, as well as building relationships and increasing reach beyond the institutional walls. They will be well supported by the Learning Department, including J'net Ayayqwayaksheelth, Indigenous Outreach and Learning Coordinator. J’net made a particular impact on my trip, as she combines passionate beliefs with practical innovative approaches to making both collections and indigenous knowledge accessible, such as daily gallery interactions, staff training, and regular Facebook Live ‘Indigenous Insights’ facilitated by indigenous colleagues, volunteers, and members of the museum’s Indigenous Youth Cabinet. She spoke forcefully on the importance of changing institutions from the inside, with the support of management, leaders and politicians; offering opportunities to indigenous people, and continuing to address social inequalities. Changes that might appear small, such as updating the claim that ‘Christopher Columbus Discovers America’ on a historical ‘tree cookie’, and installing a tobacco offering box in the First People’s Gallery, actually represent larger changes in attitude within the institution, although work is ongoing.

 

Tobacco offering box in the Daphne Cockwell Gallery dedicated to First Peoples
 art and culture
at the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto

One of my most anticipated visits was to the Canadian Museum of History, where eight colleagues were very generous in sharing their time with me. With the Westminster-inspired architecture of the Canadian Parliament looming over the river and visible through the many plate-glass windows, and the imminent federal election making many people nervous about changing political priorities, it did seem that both here and at the nearby National Gallery of Canada, strong political influences shaped their messaging and displays, perhaps even more than at the other institutions I visited. The Canadian Museum of History has run an Indigenous Internship Program for an impressive 27 years. Interns are of all ages and at various life stages, including both the start and end of their careers. As well as the Indigenous Advisory Committee (one of six advisory committees), positions on the Board of Trustees are reserved for First Nations, Inuit and Métis representatives.

The magnificent museum and storage buildings were designed by renowned indigenous architect Douglas Cardinal, who also designed the National Museum of the American Indian in Washington, D.C. The most well-known gallery is the Grand Hall, which houses an impressive collection of carved poles (often incorrectly called ‘totem poles’), as well as reconstructions of six North West Coast houses, containing historical and contemporary art, regalia, tools and equipment. Behind the Grand Hall are the meandering galleries of the Canadian History Hall, where indigenous creation stories, mythologies and personal experiences are given equal gallery space to more Eurocentric chronologies, highlighting diverse perceptions of time, origins and history.

The Grand Hall at the  Canadian Museum of History Ottawa

I met colleagues from both the Curatorial and Repatriation and Indigenous Relations departments, who offered insights into the many challenges and rewards of caring for a national collection with complex and evolving histories.  Three curators generously shared their experiences of designing an exhibition in collaboration with indigenous participants. They reiterated the importance of investing substantial time and resources for the reciprocal benefit of both the museum and indigenous communities, building respectful and meaningful relationships, and being clear and realistic about the expectations of all involved.

I wasn’t sure what to expect from the Indigenous Art Centre, as it’s more of a government department than a visitor attraction, with only a small temporary display space in the lobby. In fact, this is a huge and under-used resource of indigenous art, collected since the 1960s, and available for long- and short-term loan to national and international exhibitions. Actively collecting with an indigenous board and director, it has always reflected current trends and emerging artists, quite distinct from collections in larger institutions which target mature works by established artists, often selected in comparison to the European canon. For any curators looking to borrow contemporary indigenous art, this is an excellent resource with great potential for the future.

Entrance area to the historical galleries at the 

National Gallery of Canada, 

including contemporary and ancestral pieces.

Unfortunately the timing of my visit to the National Gallery of Canada just missed the opening of Àbadakone | Continuous Fire | Feu continuel, the second of a series of exhibitions of international contemporary indigenous art. However, the permanent galleries more than made up for this. Recently redisplayed and opened in 2017, through judicious use of loans (many from the nearby Canadian Museum of History), the juxtaposition of historic settler and indigenous art creates dialogues of trade and influence. A large birch bark canoe in the centre of one gallery signifies the indigenous presence missing from the iconic landscapes of the Group of Seven artists. The entrance to the Canadian and Indigenous galleries houses a striking mixture of historical and contemporary indigenous pieces, including contemporary pieces made using traditional techniques, themes and symbolism, to challenge the viewer’s perception of what is old and new. Although not all of the objects’ histories are described, nor the selection processes explained, Alexandra Kahsenni:io Nahwegahbow, Associate Curator of Historical Indigenous Art explained that the Gallery continues to work closely with two Indigenous Advisory Committees on how to welcome and care for historical artefacts that are seen as direct embodiments of ancestors. Further information on this ongoing relationship can be found in an article here.

Birch bark canoe in front of works by Canada’s famous Group of Seven artists in the National Gallery of Canada.

The Art Gallery Ontario has several outstanding galleries of indigenous artists’ work, unflinchingly dealing with issues of identity, colonialism and social inequality. I saw evidence of appreciation of this on a feedback card apparently written that day, which read: “I’m happy to see my indigenous peoples expressions and realities in the same space of a lot of those people who denied them that right. We still have plenty to say and plenty to share.”

Although classified together as ‘Indigenous and Canadian art’, works by indigenous artists and settlers are generally hung in separate galleries, with the exception of a few cases of three-dimensional indigenous material amongst the settler paintings. A couple of juxtapositions did speak eloquently though, such as two works by Group of Seven artist Lawren Harris (1885–1970) inserted amongst politicised contemporary pieces by indigenous artists. The accompanying label described how Harris’ “vast and unpopulated vistas…helped reinforce colonial narratives of the country as an expansive and untouched terrain”. In one of the first galleries near the entrance, Emily Carr’s iconic untitled work, previously called ‘Indian Church’ (1929) and recently renamed ‘Church in Yuquot Village’, faces Sonny Assu’s ‘Re-Invaders: Digital Intervention on an Emily Carr Painting (Indian Church, 1929)’ (2014). Both paintings dramatically flank Adrian Stimson’s ‘Old Sun’ (2005), a powerful installation combining buffalo skin, steel, sand, a light from the Old Sun Residential School, and an ominous shadowy representation of the British Union flag.

Adrian Stimson’s ‘Old Sun’ (2005) framed by
Emily Carr’s iconic ‘Indian Church’ (1929), renamed
‘Church in Yuquot Village’, and Sonny Assu’s
‘Re-Invaders: Digital Intervention on an Emily Carr Painting
 (Indian Church, 1929)’ (2014) at the Art Gallery Ontario

At the Ontario College of Art and Design (OCAD) University’s Onsite Gallery, I visited a temporary exhibition of indigenous art from around the circumpolar world, entitled ‘Among All These Tundras’. I joined a tour led by Ryan Rice, independent curator and Associate Dean, and before the tour he told me about his previous roles representing indigenous artists and curators. Although he remained critical of many major galleries and museums, “doors were now opening, and getting wider”. He explained how smaller independent galleries such as Onsite can often offer more opportunities to emerging indigenous artists, although perhaps the same could be said for non-indigenous artists as well.

My penultimate meeting was with Professor Ruth Phillips, Co-director of Great Lakes Research Alliance for the Study of Aboriginal Arts & Cultures (GRASAC), and Canada Research Chair in Modern Cultures at Carleton University. An authoritative figure, she was reassuring in her position that the perspectives of indigenous artists and non-indigenous academics were both valid, as long as both are grounded in respect, with ongoing dialogue and exchange. She emphasised the importance of research, particularly into provenance, and the complexities of repatriation for artefacts acquired as diplomatic gifts and trade items. Echoing Dr Tim Foran, Curator of British North America at the Canadian Museum of History, she highlighted the nuances of trade and personal relationships, intermarriage, gift-giving and obligation, and the dangers of emotive generalisation and absolutism. Nowadays much can be learnt through digital exchange, collaboration, and consultation with both historical archives and contemporary specialists. Ancestral knowledge, practical skills, techniques, and traditions can be rediscovered and re-understood, reconnecting generations, communities, and individuals around the world. Finally, she emphasised the Reconciliation aspect of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission; that the real gains are now to be made in working together, rather than perpetuating divisions.

This trip was a fantastic opportunity to immerse myself in some of Canada’s pre-eminent museums and galleries, to meet practitioners leading the way in representing and integrating both indigenous and settler perspectives into core narratives and displays. As museums continue to confront the legacies of empire, and as we all face global issues of health and climate chaos, this research trip to Canada reinforced for me the importance of putting communities, collaboration and communication at the heart of everything we do.

This trip was made possible with support from the Association of Art Museum Curators & AAMC Foundation and Art Fund.